Impact of Facebook on Society

Facebook has become one of the leading social networking sites on the Internet today. It is used by millions of people around the world; there are high school students, college students, family members and friends using this tool to simply keep in touch with one another, while other people have come to use Facebook for business purposes. It is simply a multi billion-dollar organization that has affected the way people communicate today. It is apparent that Facebook has such an eminent control over its users; nevertheless it is the user who must determine whether this is a good or bad control.The history of Facebook may or may not play a role in one’s opinion of social networking, however we feel that being educated on the subject will allow for an informed final decision. Several Harvard students and their roommates established Facebook, these students included Mark Zuckerberg, Dustin Moskovitz, and Chris Hughes. Originally it began as a social network within Harvard that even tually continued to connect other students throughout other Boston colleges and universities. i]By the end of 2005, Facebook had allowed colleges from around the world to join the network and within a few months high schools were being incorporated into the social network as well. Finally, by September of that year, anyone with an email could join. Facebook was the new worldwide fad. At the beginning of 2007 Facebook announced that it would be allowing free advertising and on October 24th Microsoft purchased 1. 6% of the company for $240 million. [ii] Microsoft is an American based international computer technology company that has an annual revenue of $51. 2 U. S. billion. [iii] Spending only $240 million for 1. 6% of Facebook is essentially their first step before they, or another international technology company buys them out.Google is another example of an American public corporation that was co-founded by Stanford University students and was ultimately bought out. Major corpora tions do not buy out programs such as these unless there is undoubtedly a future for them, or the advertisements that are posted will have a huge return rate.In many ways this program could be considered technologically advanced compared to fellow competitors such as Myspace. The applications that are permitted within Facebook continue to improve as well as add up. Facebook is simply a way for those to connect to others. This search can be as limited as the user permits, however it enables you to remain close to friends you saw last week or those you have not been given the opportunity to speak with for several years. One must remember that Facebook is a very personal piece of technology.You can display a picture of yourself for your profile, you can describe your likes, dislikes and many interests, you can report to your friends whether or not you are listed as single, you can share your birthday and your age, you can let others tag photos of you and you can even post a video of yo u and or your friends online. It can be used to track down old childhood chums, it can also be used to list your top friends or share your mood. Right now I’m feeling content! There are many fantastic opportunities with the wonderful world of Facebook.But with these many opportunities you must be prepared for the negative aspects, especially for parents with young children using this program. Depending on how the user has arranged their personal settings it is possible for people to whom you have no knowledge of, to view the photos, videos and comments that you or your friends have posted. Another example of how Facebook can effect your life would be that current or potential employers could use this as a background or character check.Any as many of us are aware, who we are with our friends is not always who we are when put into a professional environment and this information could have employers misguided. Also, Facebook could ultimately lead to Internet stalking. There is a block or high privacy option available, but hackers and stalkers have ways of getting around these controls. If this piece of technology is used incorrectly or carelessly, the damages could be fatal. For example during May of 2007, there was an alleged rumor of a suicide pact, claiming that every two weeks one student from St.Joan of Arc Catholic School were to commit suicide. Two students unfortunately took their own lives and while the dates were exactly two weeks apart this was merely a coincidence. Nevertheless there were approximately 17 names of students who declared that they would take their own lives as well. [iv] Another example is one from a friend of mine; we will call her Amanda. Amanda discovered a picture of her that was posted without her permission, she had asked her friend to remove the picture, however the friend did no such thing.With Facebook you are given the opportunity to â€Å"report a photo† which Amanda did, the only problem is that Facebook has th ousands of users that the people who manage the program have not yet followed through with her complaint and the picture has remained posted to date. While Facebook may not be around in five years, or just may no longer be the fad, it has affected the majority of us. From hearing about it, to actually experiencing all of the applications, it has given the public yet another way to spend hours upon hours a day on the computer. Social networking will forever expand and improve, we just need to persevere and remain informed.

Conflicts Are Important Worksheet Essay

Part 1: The Five Conflict Types Describe each of the five conflict types using paragraph form. Conflict is important, and it is also important to recognize the different types of conflicts that you may be involved with. By knowing this, you can recognize the state of mind you’re in and if possible avoid it. Pseudo conflicts are one of the five different types. These are not real conflicts; they are only perceived as conflicts. Pseudo conflicts can result from two causes: faulty assumptions and false dilemmas. Mistaking assumptions for facts may explain many pseudo conflicts. Pseudo conflicts that result from false dilemmas occur when the parties involved see only two choices as solutions to the problem. Another is Fact conflicts; this kind of conflicts happen when individuals disagree about information that could easily be verified whether by statics or some other resource. Ego conflicts occur when a dispute centers on status or power; this reminds of two of my cousins when they let their egos get in the way of them winning their athletic competitions. Even though it was obvious that Angel was more of an athletic guy than Joe, he always felt like he had something to prove. Instead of them continuing to be on the same time for these competitions, Joe felt as though he had to show Angel that he was able to do everything better than him as well as get the most girls phone numbers. This kind of ego conflict they had affected their ability to continue to work together. Value conflicts focus on personal beliefs that you hold near and dear and is one that is very important to me, because at a previous job another assistant manager decided that he wasn’t going to ask all the employees their availability on the weekends. He felt that it was okay for him to ask just the ones he had better communication with. I took that very personal because I believe that all of us should be treated equally no matter the title, status, who or what  we know that conversation got quite heated, and the district manager got involved. The last type of conflict is called Need conflicts this usually occurs when the needs of one individual are at odds with the needs of another; For example: when you need a tool to finish a job, and so does your co-worker, when you need time to complete a project for work, but your spouse needs you at that very moment, or when you need to schedule a meeting at two o’clock and your team member can’t be there until three, you have a conflict of needs. Sometimes need conflicts are easily resolved by redefining or restating the needs in a way that allows a mutual satisfying solution. Part 2: The Five Conflict Management Styles Describe each of the five conflict management styles and explain the strengths and weaknesses of each. Use paragraph form. There are five different conflict management styles. Each of them has their own strengths and weaknesses. These styles are called avoiders, accommodators, forcers, compromisers and collaborators. Avoiders steer clear of conflict for a variety of reasons. If you are an avoider, you may lack the time, energy, confidence, or skills to engage in conflict. Avoiders try to stay away from conflict by leaving the situation, changing the subject, or simply agreeing to disagree without discussing the issues that precipitated the conflict. Although constant use of avoidance is not recommended, you may choose this style as a means of buying time in order to think through the problem, as a way of temporarily defusing strong emotions, or as a means of limiting your involvement in a conflict that does not seem worth the time or effort required to resolve it. On the other hand, avoidance may keep you from seeking a long-term solution to the conflict. Accommodators allow others to determine the outcome of the conflict. You will â€Å"give in† to keep the peace. Accommodators value smooth relationships and don’t want to make waves or cause trouble for anyone. Accommodation may be most appropriate when the issue in conflict is not that important to you or when it is easy to make concessions to others. Repeated attempts to accommodate others, however, may result in resentment and failure to get  your own needs met. Forcers expect to get their needs met regardless of the costs. For the forcer, winning may provide a sense of accomplishment. In conflicts, you may put your needs first and sometimes with little or no regard for the needs of others. This is a weakness when having to deal with a group of people. Not being empathetic to others causes relations to fail. They frequently are more interested in implementing their solution to a problem rather than listening to the opinions, needs, and feelings of others. Forcers are often impatient with others who do not see things their way. Although forcing can lower morale, jeopardize relationships, and stifle creativity, in some situations, you might find this approach to be appropriate. Compromisers think that those involved in the conflict must each be prepared to give up something in order to reach a solution. Choosing the role of compromiser, you expect to settle for less than what would meet your needs. Compromisers usually employ maneuvering, negotiating, and trading in an attempt to find a solution. However, unmet needs may still remain, and for those involved, the commitment to the solution will be only lukewarm at best. Sometimes, however, you may choose to compromise because the compromise represents a solution both you and the other party can â€Å"live with.† This latter result is particularly acceptable when the nature of the disagreement isn’t of vital importance to you or the other party. Lastly Collaborators believe that both parties can and will get their needs met. The underlying belief of collaborators is that if you understand one another’s needs, you will be able to find a way to meet both parties’ needs. The question is not whose needs will be met, but rather how you will meet the needs of both parties. This style has the advantages of promoting collaboration, creativity, and commitment. However, collaborating can seem unattainable to you when the needs of those involved are not clearly stated or understood. In addition, you will discover that collaboration takes time, and willingness of both parties to work together, and the belief that there is a mutual satisfying solution. Part 3: Collaborative Communication List two methods of collaborative communication and describe how using them can help you avoid conflicts. †¢ Believe both parties can meet their needs can help in avoiding conflicts. It is simply put that if I feel you can and you feel that I can and we both truly believe in each other, then there would be no conflict. In order for me to believe in anything, I will need some kind of proof first. By both parties believing in the other, they must have proven themselves once before. †¢ Wanting to hear the needs of the other is another method that can help avoid conflicts. We all think that what we say is correct so in most cases there is no need to hear the other. And when the other does try to intervene, a conflict occurs. If we take the time out to actually hear someone else without interruption, we may find out that their needs or opinions make lots of senses.

Causes And Ways Of Diminishing The Low Per Capita Income

Causes And Ways Of Diminishing The Low Per Capita Income Since joblessness has changed into an essential issue in Pakistan, which plainly or circuitous makes financial issues. Tolerating, regardless, assets are extremely used as a piece of Pakistan, this issue can be killed. A considerable measure of creating is open on the point, featuring various causes and results with respect to expanding rate of joblessness. Different examinations investigated determinants of joblessness. Two or three examinations utilized Micro fiscal orchestrated and others utilized Macroeconomic parts of joblessness. These examinations handled made, energetic and making nations. Different hypothetical models are utilized for surveying the determinants of joblessness. The journey for work indicate was appeared by Mortensen (1970) and Lippman and McCall (1976). As indicated by this show, the joblessness relies on work offer and occupation attestation. The development offer stores of work, rule, work understanding and the request state of neighborhood. Acero (1993) proposed a few segments of joblessness. She conveyed that different parts couldnt be called attention to by a neoclassical point of view. A few these parts are identified with veritable excursion for new work. She said that the development highlight continues changing itself as experts change work. In any case, when these developments take quite a while by virtue of the heterogeneity of work oblige and the openings for work, nonattendance of perfect data or the cost of setting we up, need to confront issues. When we leave individuals jobless for quite a while, it likewise makes issues. Particular sections are wage unfaltering nature, the impact of workers affiliation and work authorizing. Assaad et al. (2000) definitely inspected assorted determinants of joblessness in Egypt. The work market of Egypt is keeping from explore from high wide joblessness, where joblessness is prevailing with reliable rate. Examination uncovers that the informed female part is being influence d than that of male accessories by the progress to a private division economy. The female have some issue to enter in the activity highlight, particularly in private piece. They recommend that there is unfathomable arrangement air that is honest to goodness for work concentrated strategies, experts sorted out associations would adjust the new contenders into the work broadcast. Kalim (2003) wore out determinants of joblessness in Pakistan. She isolates the quantifiable relationship between joblessness, individuals change and true blue headway rate of GDP. There is a constructive relationship among joblessness and individuals and an opposite relationship among joblessness and GDP over a time of 1986-1999. A basic fall away from the faith is used to discover the outcomes. She expected that masses change rate in Pakistan is unimaginably high when showed up distinctively in connection to other making nations. On the work front, it has been discovered that a broad number of work oblige stay jobless. Both GDP and individuals are bona fide supporters of joblessness in the economy. Echebiri (2005) oversaw determinants of joblessness in Umuahia whats more, Pakistan. Umuahia has a speedier masses change rate so the greater part of work oblige isnt utilized. The instance of 220 youths was drawn from zones with moving private setups and found that pre-grown-up joblessness in the town conceded standard credits to that assembled in different assorted urban systems really taking shape scene. Rule and work propensity have a provoke relationship with joblessness. It was especially discovered that greater bit of the jobless and first time work searchers favored salaried work to self-governing work. The adolescents showed that they hate the country residency on the grounds that there is nonappearance of work openings and poor social and physical foundations. Akhtar and Shahnaz (2005) correspondingly evaluated the determinants of youth joblessness utilizing information from 1991 to 2004. In 1990 there is high joblessness because of low GDP and meander. They oversaw both little scale moreover, sweeping scale determinants of youth joblessness issues in Pakistan. In the first place, joblessness of youth just starts to diminish if the yearly change rate of Gross family unit thing is more fundamental than 4.25 percent for consistently. Second, the headway rate of associations parcel GDP has more fundamental effect on lessening female joblessness. Third, the private area hypothesis has more basic effect than open locale set out to decrease youth joblessness. Family little scale level information demonstrated that limit acquisition and master arranging have no effect on business. Foreign Direct Investment in Pakistan is around 532 million dollars in 2012, whereas the GDP improvement rate of the country is around 3.7 percent, which has reliably d eclined over the earlier decade. It is a making country and is standing up to different social issues including joblessness being one of the genuine one. The joblessness rate in Pakistan is around 5.55 percent. There are different segments that impact the joblessness rate in Pakistan. The illustrative factors under examination are Population Growth Rate (PGR), Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Poverty Rate (PR), Interest Rate (IR) and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Studies have been directed to grasp the joblessness of Pakistan, at any rate there still exist a need to find the associations of each one of these components with each other. This can give bits of information to the approach makers to devise frameworks for national growth. In Pakistan there are impressive measures of factors that impact unemployment. Pakistan economy by and large depends upon agribusiness portion that contribute 20.9% in GDP and 43.5% people used in that part where male extent is 34.9% and 74.2% females. In nation region extent of business is higher as appear differently in relation to urban zone that is 35.97% all around and concerning sexual introduction 22.49% male and 13.48% females work in agribusiness part. Backwardness around there causes higher job. Schoeman et al. (2008) audited the determinants of joblessness in South Africa. They utilized the tremendous scale financial parts, real change standard whats more, unionization as a level of formal business, foul oil costs, capital stock and merchants insistence rate. The outcomes demonstrated that there is a switch relationship among meander and joblessness and the positive relationship among joblessness and affiliation station, unrefined petroleum costs, essentialness about genui ne change standard and strict money related system. Eita and Ashipala (2010) wore out determinants of joblessness in Namibia for the period of 1971-2007.They utilized far reaching scale financial segments for joblessness show up. They utilized Engle and Granger way to deal with oversee measure the model. The outcomes displayed that there is negative relationship among swelling and joblessness, positive between wage rate and joblessness and negative among theory and joblessness. The Philips curve held in Namibia. Kingdon and Knight (2001) handled joblessness by utilizing profit appear for South Africa. Garcia (2004) examined on purposes behind joblessness in Spain. Valadkhani (2003) managed joblessness in Iran. Monastiriotis (2006) wore out joblessness by utilizing macroeconomic factors in UK. He utilized Keynesian and monetarist approach of joblessness. Kwabena (2011) assessed determinants of joblessness in Limpopo. We have assessed unquestionable examinations about determinants of joblessness. These examinations have not considered the essential macroeconomic factors which may influence joblessness rate. Kalim (2003) considers just two components like masses and GDP as determinants of joblessness in her examination for Pakistan economy. For broad examination, this take a gander at joins remote direct meander, outside responsibility, individuals, swelling and GDP as determinants, which may contribute joblessness rate in Pakistan and utilizations an impressive enlightening record. There are particular techniques for planning the cointegration examination among factors. The techniques are: Julius (1990) and Johansen (1992). At whatever point there are in excess of two I(1) factors in the framework, the most preposterous probability approach of Johansen and Julius has the perfect position over remaining based approach of Engle and Granger; both of the methodology require that the factors have a practically identical request of wire. Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) for cointegration test has certain perfect conditions over Johansen. This technique does not require the demand of components into I(0) or I(1). This examination utilized ARDL way to deal with oversee break down cointegration among factors that was proposed by Pesaran and Shin (1999). A fundamental model is utilized to separate the varieties in joblessness rate in Pakistan. There are number of segments which influence the joblessness rate. The supportive kind of the model is as: UN = f (GDP, POP, FDI, PINV, EXD) Where UN = Unemployment in millions POP = Population in millions GDP = Real Gross family unit thing in US dollars (millions) FDI = Foreign direct enthusiasm for US dollars (millions) EXD = External commitment in US dollars (millions) PINV = Private enthusiasm for US dollars (million.) Joblessness: The destitute variable is joblessness which is gotten from work constrain less utilized people. Joblessness happens precisely when a man is fit and willing to work yet is before long without work. Masses: Population recommends imply people of the nation. Masses increment prompts increase in joblessness. Indicate national yield: The aggregate market estimation of every single last remarkable and associations passed on every year inside the purposes of imprisonment of a nation. The examination recognize that there may negative relationship among GDP and joblessness. Remote Direct Investment: Foreign direct speculation (FDI) in its praiseworthy shape is portrayed as a relationship from one nation impacting a physical meander into building a creation to line in another nation. It is the foundation of a meander by an untouchable. The examination acknowledges that FDI has a negative association with joblessness. Outside commitment: External duty is that bit of the aggregate responsibility in a nation that is owed to outside nationals, firms and affiliations. The responsibility joins cash owed to private business banks, unmistakable governments, or general money related relationship, for example, the IMF and World Bank. Outer Obligation prompts diminish in joblessness. Private Investment: A private speculation capital cooperation, overall recommended as PICS, is a money related gadget that depends upon a little pool of fiscal specialists cash for arrive hypotheses. The cash managers of private subsidizing cooperation or PICS are experienced land meander geniuses, who in addition put resources into related land things, for example, assess lien approvals, dispossessions, notes, and furthermore change connects on favorable position of their endorsers and themselves. Private Investment prompts diminish in joblessness.

Purification of Drinking Water, Drinking Water Treatment Processes, Essay

Purification of Drinking Water, Drinking Water Treatment Processes, Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries - Essay Example Availability of clean drinking water is a major global concern with the situation in developing countries becoming worse due to the rapid population growth in these nations. Scarcity of water has serious socio-economic implications in developing countries with women and girls from poor families spending a majority of their time searching for water at the expense of economically rewarding activities and education (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010). Poor quality drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene contribute to 4 billion cases of diarrhoea disease annually with more than 1.5 million people losing their lives, the majority being children under the age of five years (United Nations, 2005). These people are usually exposed to contaminated drinking water mainly from untreated waste water that contains human and animal faeces and urine exposing them to pathogenic micro organisms. Water Sources Drinking water comes from both surface and ground water with the na tural water cycle maintaining the available water for mankind (Omran, 2011). Majority of people from developing countries get their water from springs, boreholes, sealed wells, hand-dug wells, streams, rivers, and lakes (Omran, 2011). Some of these sources are contaminated with water borne diseases responsible for over 50% hospitalization in these countries (Alward et al., 1994). Despite some of the sources like ground water being clean and safe for drinking, improper use, ignorance and lack of adequate sanitation facilities like toilets make their drinking water contaminated during collection, transport, storage and drawing of water (Lindskog and Lindskog, 1988). This contributes significantly to developing countries disease burdens. Purification of Drinking Water Majority of people living in developing countries uses simple and rudimentary water treatment techniques to serve individual households and community needs despite the availability of superior conventional technologies. C onventional treatment technologies are too expensive and inappropriate for people living in very poor neighbourhoods due to limitation in infrastructure and skilled personnel. The simple and rudimentary water purification system is primarily aimed to remove the visible impurities such as floating particles, leaves, and twigs. The commonly used water purification systems include; Simple Filtration This is accomplished by using locally available filters, sieves, or pieces of cloth. The filters can be made of sandstones and plant materials and are purposefully made to clarify or remove visible contaminants of water. Boiling Boiling is the most commonly used and promoted household water treatment method around the world (Beddow, 2010). The water being boiled must reach a boiling temperature of 1000c. This process is effective in killing most pathogens that cause water borne diseases. The disadvantages of boiling include the lack of residual antimicrobial properties in the water making t he water easily re-contaminated if handled improperly. Boiling is widely accepted across all regions and when done properly offers many people access to safe drinking water free from diarrhoea causing organisms. Waste Water Treatment Waste water treatment in developing cou

Health Education Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Health Education - Case Study Example Relationships provide people with a sense of belonging because they tend to feel loved and accepted (APA 16). Some of the aspects that define a relationship are care, love, trust, concern and commitment. Therefore, when any of these aspects is not fulfilled in a relationship, such a relationship becomes stressful. For example, Mary feels that her trust has been betrayed when she finds DeWayne strolling into a restaurant with another woman. Therefore, her devastation is an indication that she is hurt and depressed about this incident. Therefore, relationships become stressful because they are dependent on trust, and when this is breached, issues of suspicion and insecurity start cropping up. 2. Why Do Some People Handle Relationships and Stress Differently? Stress affects all people, but different people handle stress differently. According to Scott, every individual perceives situations differently and thus each individual’s stress coping skills are different (1). As such, no two individuals respond in the exact same way to any given situation. For example, some individuals are more naturally reactive and sensitive to stress. A study by researchers at Michigan Technological University found that men and women handle stress differently. One explanation can be derived from the differences in temperament. Temperament is a collection of inborn personal characteristics that are observable as early as in childhood (Klinic Community Health Center 12). These differences cause certain people to become naturally resilient in the face of stressful situations, while others tend to feel more threatened and are thus less able to cope. Another reason why people handle stress differently is because of the meaning that is often associated with certain circumstances. For example, when a person has a sense of control in a certain situation, no matter how difficult, he or she will feel more empowered and less threatened. People also handle relationships differently. For exa mple, in love relationships, women are described as more emotional and thus tend to give their all to the relationship. They believe that the relationship will materialize and culminate in a long-term commitment (Randall and Bodenmann 107). For example, in this case, Mary’s whole world is said to center on DeWayne, and she thinks about him constantly. However, other people, especially men, view relationships as a matter of convenience and avenues of getting certain satisfactions such as emotional and physical in the form of sex. This explains the emergence of phrases such as â€Å"friends with benefits.† For example, while Mary is counting on a wedding, DeWayne is strolling into a restaurant with another woman. This shows that he lacks commitment. In such a situation, when the relationship ends, Mary will be more stressed, while DeWayne might be less stressed. 3. Write a Brief Evaluation of the Situation above and Explain What's Happening to Mary As a Result In the sit uation above, Mary is deeply in love with DeWayne, but the same cannot be said of DeWayne. Since they have been dating for over two years, Mary feels that DeWayne is her partner for life, and they have even discussed plans about their eventual marriage. When DeWayne starts going slow on the relationship, Mary begins suspecting that something is wrong. She realizes that he might be seeing someone else and on confronting him, DeWayne ends the relationship

How does the loss of Kates parents affect Kates values and faith Essay

How does the loss of Kates parents affect Kates values and faith - Essay Example However, this passion for learning is matched by an equally strong iron clad sense of duty. This is the conflict that plays out in Kate’s brother Matt’s life where his sense of duty clashes with his love of learning and aborts his plans in the academic field. As a result, it is Kate who goes on to acquire the learning and become a biologist at Toronto – it is Kate who has the chance to spread her wings and leave Crow Lake, which leaves her with a strong feeling of guilt, since it was her brother Matt who should have been the one to achieve that. It was her brother Matt who was the real scholar of the family, who had a bright future before him as an academic, however the death of their parents forces him to take up farming jobs that ultimately makes him sacrifice his literary aspirations in order to end up becoming a menial farmer. While learning has been the valued goal in the family, the death of their parents is a tragic event for the four brothers and sisters. It is especially difficult for Kate to reconcile her bitterness and inner trauma at the death of her parents, because she feels that it is the direct cause that brought hardship on the family and made it difficult for Matt to be able to pursue his education. The suddenness of the event is a feature that adds to the trauma and shock that Kate feels at the death of her parents. She provides a foretaste of the ominous nature of the day as follows:â€Å"But for our family, there was an event that summer catastrophic enough to be the start of practically everything.† (Lawson 6). This catastrophic event she refers to is none other than her parents’ death, which ironically occurs just after the family has received some glad news. The eldest brother Luke has been accepted as a teacher at a nearby town and this is not only a joyful event but also a surprising one, because it is Matt who is the intelligent one of the family, acknowledged as the one to follow in the footsteps of

Asbestos hazards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Asbestos hazards - Essay Example The case of James Hardie Industries in Australia is a learning experience on how failure of the businesses to induce a mechanism of occupational health issues can remain critical to its operations. Occupational health hazards do exist in daily operations in most businesses. However, it remains the role of the managers and the health department to ensure that the staff and the target consumers are safe, during the process of conducting the sales as well as production. That is the reason the national department on safety does recommend that every business should have a safety program for its workers prior to kicking off its operations. Some of the business products are at the verge of posing long-term effects to the victims of the same. It, therefore, remains expensive to compensate the victims as long-term damage has already occurred in their system. Prevention is always better than cure. It is advantageous for a firm to come up with outlines of hazards prevention rather than coming u p with them when damage has already happened. Utilization of protective devices is also important especially in areas where various lethal gases or solids are at risk of coming into contact with the bodies of the victims.Deaths related to asbestos toxicity were on the increase. Everybody was aware that the firm was responsible for the effects. Mesothelioma was the main condition that the majority of people suffered from. More than 10000 deaths did occur in Australia due to the toxicity emanating from asbestos.

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Marketing - Essay Example Market segmentation was introduced in 1956 by Wendell Smith, and since then it has, more than any other marketing concept, been the subject of scholarly discussion and inquiry (Quinn, 2009). His main argument lay in the sense that goods will be able to realize their maximum potential utility if the differences among market segments were recognized and catered to, rather than if goods were produced indiscriminately for the mass market (Foedermayr & Diamantopoulos, 2008). The wisdom in segmentation is that it aids in creating a homogeneous group out of a heterogeneous market, for which a more effective marketing mix may be designed. This enhances the attractiveness of the firm and its products to the target segment, by allowing the company to more ably meet the customers’ perceived needs. Furthermore, the segmentation exercise undertaken by the company in the process of strategizing better enables the company to more specifically determine and understand customer needs, and the criteria by which such needs may be segmented. A closer match could therefore be created between the product design, the marketing approach, and the requirements of the customers (McDonald & Dunbar, 2007). Market segmentation is conceived of as a highly useful â€Å"sense-making† tool, often for the purpose of communicating to the targeted market in the most effective way (Quinn, 2009, p. 253). However, the degree to which it is useful as a tool for creating specific strategic plans is the subject of current debate. A salient criticism against reliance on segmentation as a concept emerged in the 1990s. At that time it became apparent to some scholars that consumer lifestyles continue to grow increasingly fragmented. As a result, market segmentation appears to become more and more ineffective as a valid method for defining the market of a firm (Quinn, 2009; Charles, 2002; Holt, 1997). The idea of â€Å"lifestyle† has been used to define market segments, but more and mor e the concept has become vague and ambiguous. In practice, it has become difficult to define in detail all customers served by a firm or industry, and increasingly the approach to segmentation is to identify the criteria most important to that business and divide the customers into groups according to those categories that are most manageable (Quinn, 2009, p. 255). The variations in lifestyles and the wide variety of differentiated products have created not a few general homogeneous markets; on the contrary, and for some industries in particular, customization of product and service designs have become the standard. For instance, in addressable and interactive communications are profiled against individualized customer analytics and propensity modelling; these assist in determining the likelihood that specific propositions shall be accepted (Bailey, Baines, Wilson & Clark, 2009). 2. What are the different segmentation processes for both B2C and B2B? To understand the different appro aches concerning B2C and B2B markets, it is necessary to define the terms. B2C is short for business-to-customer; that is, the business that supplies the product, whether good or service, is targeting the end user or individual consumer. On the other hand, B2B refers

Global Trends Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Trends - Essay Example Education is also another key thing. People from different cultures go to the same class, spend time in hostels together and learn in class the importance of appreciating and leaving with each other (Tracey, 1999). Entertainment industry has made people from different cultures to come together and produce music hence pulling their cultures together. Forces’ trying to prevent erosion of cultures include the development of archive centers. These will keep the tradition materials and information that remind people of their past cultures (Gary, 2005). The development of traditional clothing has stopped people from embracing foreign attire; maintaining and embracing eating culture has stopped international modified food from taking over the cultural mode of eating especially in Asian countries. Technology changes the culture of countries; it has provided tools that enable our capability to network through the internet communities like Facebook and MySpace. This communication promotes freedom of expression that is not guaranteed in some countries. For example, Facebook provide space for communication during Arabs spring. Technology has made people to migrate from rural homes to the towns especially in developed countries in search of better services and good infrastructure. It has also increased awareness on the value of goods to the consumer hence eliminating middle men who used to make huge profits (Henry, 2006). Global culture is developing since the image of borderless flow has been evoked. Right know people, money and goods are moving undistracted around the world hence forming a global society full of universal culture and universal business language. Global influences have enable me learn through online and be able to communicate with friends through social media at ant time. I have benefitted through knowing the prices of products in the market without going through the

To what extent has the UKs Vocational Education and Training (VET) Essay

To what extent has the UKs Vocational Education and Training (VET) system contributed to a skills gap Discuss with reference to the UKs potential to learn from other countries VET systems - Essay Example 5). Despite that, UK still continues to suffer from a skills gap that has affected its high economy. 3 This paper provides arguments that establish the participation degree played by the UK national VET system in bridging the skills gap. The aim is not to provide a theoretical analysis of UK’s performance, but rather to reference performance frameworks to Australian and Germany VET systems by establishing what can be learnt. 3 The term Vocational education and training (VET) originates from the content and purpose of the training. International bodies define VET as the means of preparing occupation professional fields for effective participation in the labour market (Bosch and Charest 2010, p. 1). However, this definition may not fit the current educational dimension that is characterised by university education that also prepares individuals for the workforce under specific professions. Thus, while higher education is concerned with the preparation to the labour market, vocational training is more concerned with earlier specialization for an occupational field. For this paper, we shall adopt Brockmann’s (2008 p, 2). Definition of VET an integrated and comprehensive system aimed to offer learners the ability to act competently within an occupation. 6 VET helps to match individual skills with labour force and existing market needs, equips individuals with lower levels of education with developed skills that can enable them fit into the expanding global economy that has introduced competition among countries. Vocational training also empowers young and inexperienced employees with ‘job ready’ skills, and develops a high skilled labour force that encourages and country investments by increasing economic growth (OECD 2011, p.7). 6 The universal decisive shift from holistic to vocational training in recent years has induced the UK to seek initiatives that aim at addressing her

Part Time Job Influenced Students Study Essay Example for Free

Part Time Job Influenced Students Study Essay The prevalence of secondary school students working part-time is linked to economic cycles: when there is an economic upturn, more students work; when economies are depressed, fewer work. Most students who work do so in low-paying service, clerical, or sales jobs, with some evidence that proportionately more students from middle-class families work than students from either poor or wealthy families. There appears to be a general view that there is a connection between working more than 15 to 20 hours per week and reduced school success in terms of academic achievement, as well as an increased risk of dropping out of school. However, it is not clear whether increased work causes the problems, or whether academic failure leads more students who are failing to increase their work hours. Literature Review A range of literature has been reviewed and some details from this literature are shared below. The prevalence of work It is not clear what proportion of students work, but in a (U. S. ) study of 21,000 senior high school students, 75% were working part-time for an average of 16. 4 hours a week (Gordon, 1985). The study found that working was related to a need for immediate income and to a lack of interest in school. In Canada, 40% of teenagers aged 15 to 19 had jobs in 1993, but these data include full-time summer jobs (Canadian Social Trends, Winter, 1994). B. C. teenagers are more likely to be employed than teenagers in Ontario, Quebec, or the Atlantic provinces, with 44% employed in B. C. Slightly higher teenage-employment rates than B. C. ’s were reported in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. When only part-time work is considered, 72% of those employed worked part-time. 3% of full-time Canadian students aged 15 to 19 worked during the school year. The Statistics Canada (StatsCan) data reported in Canadian Social Trends appear low in comparison to other data, but one possible explanation may be the differentiation between full- and part-time students, a difference not always clarified in some reports. Bernier (1995), using Canadian Labour Force data, found that 40% of Canadian full-time students participated in the labour force, compared to 77% of part-time students. There may be considerable differences across socio-economic groups, though there is little firm data to support this: Lawton (1992) states that middle-class students are more likely to work than either lower- or upper-class students. Lawton also indicates that about two-thirds of students in senior grades hold part-time jobs, findings closer to Gordon’s study than to the data supplied by StatsCan. The effect of working part-time on students’ academic achievement Most research shows that there is a detrimental effect on achievement if secondary students work for over 15 hours a week (Stern, 1997). Such students have lower grades, do less homework, are more likely to drop out, and are less likely to enter post-secondary education. Those students who work fewer hours suffer fewer negative consequences. These finding are supported by a Toronto study (Cheng, 1995), and are similar to StatsCan data (Canadian Social Trends, 1994), which show that students who worked fewer than 20 hours a week had much lower dropout rates than those who worked for more than 20 hours a week. There were startling differences between males who worked fewer than 20 hours (16% dropout rate), and those who worked longer than 20 hours (33% dropout rate), although the highest female dropout rates (22%) occurred among females who did not work at all while at school. There is one important caveat to the link between part-time work and marks: there is mixed evidence as to whether marks decline because students work more, or whether students whose marks are declining choose to work more. However, Singh (1998) in a study which factored in socio-economic status and revious achievement, stated that the more hours worked, the greater the negative effects on student achievement. The consequences for younger students working longer hours could be more severe than for older students (Barone, 1993). Many students who work find some problems balancing school and work demands (Worley, 1995). Many who work part-time have limited participation in extra-curricular activities (Hope, 1990). The effect of working part-time on students’ overall well-being Stern (1997) and Cheng (1995) both state that students derive benefits from working, as long as the hours are below 15 per week. Stern identifies a benefit to future earning potential and a more positive attitude to work formed while working or during work experience at school. These findings are also supported by Canadian data. However, Lawton (1992) argues that those who support this argument also tend to support a vocational rather than a liberal view of education. Greenberger and Steinberg (1986), in an analysis of psycho-social aspects of working high-school students, concluded that it may make them academically rich but psychologically poor. They also argued that instead of instilling good work habits, many students who worked part-time learned how to cheat, steal, and deal with boring work. Mortimer (1993) found no evidence to support the claim that working long hours fostered smoking or increased school behaviour problems, but there was evidence of increased alcohol consumption. Other studies, however, have found increased drug and alcohol use, and higher rates of delinquency associated with higher num ber of hours worked by students. A 1991 Oregon Task Force found the numbers of 16- and 17-year-olds who were working to have increased in recent years. Jobs were often low-paying, unfulfilling, and offered little in the way of educational value or preparation for adult work. Canadian data suggest that trends in teenage employment are linked to economic cycles, with numbers rising and falling with buoyant or depressed economies. Most Canadian students (69%) work in service, clerical, or sales industries, with more females (84%) than males (57%) in these industries. Four times the number of males (16%) compared to females (4%) were employed in construction. Research also indicates that too many hours of work for teenagers increases fatigue and may cause lower academic performance. Carskadon (1999) describes changing sleep patterns during adolescence and discusses the influence of employment on sleep patterns. She found that students working 20 or more hours reported later bedtimes, shorter sleep times, more frequent episodes of falling asleep in school, and more late arrivals in school. An article in the American Federation of Teachers’ publication, American Teacher (February 1999), cited a report produced by the (U.  S. ) National Research Council (NRC) and the Institute of Medicine (IOM) which provided evidence of what it claims is an underestimate of 70 documented deaths of children and adolescents as a result of injuries at work, and 100,000 young people seeking treatment in hospital emergency wards as a result of work-related injuries. Based on these data, a committee established by the NRC/IOM is calling for Congress to a uthorize limits to the number of hours worked per day by teenagers, and to regulate teenagers’ work start-and finish-times on school nights.

The Rhetoric of “Yes We Can” Essay Example for Free

The Rhetoric of â€Å"Yes We Can† Essay Darà ­o Villanueva outlines the history and significance of the rhetorical tradition and highlights the striking persistence of the power of the word in American politics. Even in our high-tech age, a three-word tagline -Yes We Can- carries devastating clout. The Greek sophists -the original masters of rhetoric, notorious for their appetite for influence rather than truth- would be both impressed by the abiding power of their art, and dismayed that, in the Gutenberg Galaxy, it has become a blunt instrument. Centuries before our time, the Greeks considered the question of how to speak so as to sway the hearers mind with the power of words. The first to examine the ways in which we relate to one another through language, the Greeks wrote detailed treatises laying bare the sinews of human communication, and their experience of language and the laws they inferred from it gave rise to Rhetoric, the art or science of the public speaker. The father of rhetoric was said to be Corax, who lived in the closing third of the fifth century BC in the Greek city state of Syracuse in Sicily; his disciple Thysias was credited with bringing his rhetorical discoveries to mainland Greece. Once there, rhetoric was appropriated by the so-called sophists. The history of the term is riven with self-contradiction. Etymologically, sophist means bearer of truth, but its modern meaning is the exact opposite: a sophistry-the stock-in-trade of politicians-is a plausible but spurious argument in support of a falsehood. True rhetoric, however ─Aristotle urges in the introduction to his Rhetoric─ is by no means sophistic. Discussing the uses of the discipline, Aristotle begins with the proclamation that rhetoric educates the common citizen and shapes his spirit, and is a useful way of advancing truth and justice, which in the natural course of things would prevail over their opposites if it were not because their advocates are sometimes inept.[1] Going back to the root of the matter, however, G.B. Kerferd, a scholar concerned with the earliest Greek sophists,[2] divided the school into three distinct types:  sages, such as Solon, whose wisdom was embodied as law; statesmen, who applied their pre-eminent talents to practical affairs, such as Pericles and Themistocles; and teachers of wisdom, skilled in passing on their learning and teaching eloquence, such as Protagoras, Gorgias or Socrates. If we view this classification in Montesquieus terms, the first group would stand for the legislative and judicial powers of the state, while the second group makes a good fit with the executive power. The third group, however, comprising masters of wisdom and oratory, embodies the time-honored marriage of interests and skills between scholars and rulers, sustained by the old but evergreen art of rhetoric. American rhetoric Leaving aside any objective or partisan judgment one might pass on his politics, which is irrelevant to our concern here, Barack Hussein Obama, a university academic, senator, and President of the United States, provides a fascinating example. He makes a perfect fit with a society as sharply characteristic as the American New World, the promised land where the political principles that were later to inspire the French Revolution of 1789 gave rise to an eclectic community, a melting pot of different ethnic origins-not all of them European-and open to all the innovations brought forth by the spectacular advance of science and technology from the Enlightenment to our own day. This was the New Democratic Nation that, ushering in modern poetry, Walt Whitman sang in his book, Leaves of Grass. One of the singular features of that New World is the somewhat astonishing survival, at some fundamental level, of the power of the word. The contrast may seem improbable, but in America the flourishing of technology and all its rich resources ─the central theme of a book that is in no way complacent, but in fact hypercritical, by Marshall McLuhan and his disciple Neil Postman[3]─ enables oratorical endeavor to thrive. Greek rhetoric, largely brought into being by the Sophists, who ─we must not forget─ were more interested in winning over the masses than the furtherance of truth, now has its promised land in the United States. A recent case in point is the impact of President Obamas Yes we can speeches. Again, it was Marshall McLuhan who reminded us that electric systems of communication ─radio and television particularly─ facilitated a revival of oral expression in human communication and cultural transmission after a period of relative tyranny of the eye over the ear: the written word, with the printing press as its handmaiden, had reigned supreme over the five centuries of what McLuhan dubbed the Gutenberg Galaxy.[4] Technopoly ─Postmans unflattering name for the United States of America─ is a locus particularly amenable to the use and development of new technologies, but, even in the twenty-first century, bears the hallmarks of a vast human community in which, as in the ancestral tribes discussed by McLuhan, the spoken word still harbors real power. An undeniable influence is exerted here by the religious bedrock that continues to underlie American society. Though fragmented and diverse, the Protestant churches visibly predominate, and in their communities the biblical and evangelical word breathes life into individual and collective spiritual experience, which draws further nourishment from the often impassioned eloquence of Protestant ministers. Barack Obama himself, a devout Christian, partakes of this culture of liturgical oratory; and, far from keeping this within the private sphere, he has no qualms about putting it on public show as one facet among many of his political personality. His beginnings as a Chicago activist in the late 1980s saw him as a leader of the Developing Communities Project, run by the Church Association on the South Side. Whats more-and this was the subject of a serious controversy, adroitly handled by Obama when his presidential campaign was in full swing-he was an active member of Chicagos Trinity Church, a congregation shepherded by the controversial Reverend Jeremiah Wright. The importance of rhetoric has been a feature of American democracy since the Founding Fathers. Its earliest master was Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States and first Republican President, who  proclaimed the Emancipation of black slaves in 1863. Obama brought this to the fore in his Victory Speech when he called upon his political adversaries, members of Lincolns own party. The man who in January 2009 became the 44th president started his campaign two years earlier in the state capital at Springfield, Illinois, where in 1858 Lincoln had delivered his landmark House Divided speech. Some political commentators have not hesitated to draw a parallel between the two by dint of their common gift for oratory. Lincolns most celebrated rhetorical legacy is a prodigious speech delivered on November 10, 1863, at Gettysburg. Running to only 246 words, what might have been no more than the close of a posthumous tribute to the heroes of a battle fought four months earlier on the fields of Pennsylvania became the historic proclamation that, after the Civil War, the American nation would be consecrated for ever as the realm of freedom: government of the people, by the people and for the people. The election campaign We can readily appreciate in Barack Obamas election campaign speeches-available at http://obamaspeeches.com-that these principles, and the more effective ways in which they have been put into words, survive today; more importantly, both the principles and the words retain their power to move and engage the citizenry. This is the power of words which Obama invoked at the end of his speech announcing that he was running for President at the same place where, 149 years before, Lincoln had spoken on a House Divided. It is accurate to point out that a decisive factor in his campaign was the recruitment of all the Internets rich resources: blogs, chat rooms, social networking and, above all, the availability on YouTube of some of the candidates key speeches, which I shall later be parsing from the rhetorical standpoint. Nevertheless, in the beginning, as in the biblical Genesis, was the Word, the foundation of the oral communication that marks us out as rational beings and as social animals. So one might say that Obama simply used the new technological possibilities offered by what some now call the Internet Galaxy,[5] just as one of his predecessors in the Oval Office had  done with what McLuhan called the Marconi Constellation. I am of course referring to Franklin D. Roosevelts fireside chats, a series of 30 radio talks broadcast from 1933 to 1944. Political scientists have claimed the chats played a vital role in getting the American public to understand two major presidential initiatives: first, the New Deal, which Roosevelt undertook to combat the Depression of the 1930s; secondly, Roosevelts decision to take America into the great war then afflicting Europe. Roosevelts radio talks have gone down in the history of communications as a great oratorical achievement. They would begin with an affable Good evening, friends, and went on for 15 to 45 minutes. 80% of Roosevelts words were among the thousand commonest in the English language. Though he shares the gift of oratory with Lincoln and Roosevelt, in Obama we have a modern-day speaker addressing twenty-first-century citizens and using hitherto unthinkable technologies to enhance what, in the last instance, is little more than the outcome of applying the principles of rhetoric and its main genres of discourse: deliberative-i.e., political-discourse, and demonstrative, epideictic discourse. The epideictic mode includes the encomium, by which one describes a person, a pattern of behavior or a state of affairs with the aim of dispensing praise or censure; one of its characteristic figures ─of which, as we shall see, Obama is a consummate master─ is evidentia, a particularly vivid form of description. Obama was no stranger ─rather the opposite─ to the forensic rhetorical genre, having first majored in political science at Columbia and later progressed to a doctorate at the no less prestigious Harvard Law School. In fact, his media debut was a consequence of his being elected editor of the Harvard Law Review, the prelude to a distinguished career as a jurist which was later to elevate him to the chair of constitutional law at the University of Chicago. Communication strategies In the American system of higher education, even at the foundational level of training imparted at college up to the attainment of a bachelors degree,  much is made of communication strategies: students are urged to study and practice them, on the view that they are of crucial import for their proper development as citizens. The significance accorded to applied rhetoric is taken to an extreme in graduate study in the social sciences and, in particular, at law school. When I first experienced life in the United States, thirty years ago now, I was struck by how versatile and broad-ranging modern American rhetoric can be. In all facets of society rhetoric is close at hand, especially in the media; television has not yet lost its entrenched primacy, although it is doomed increasingly to share its viewership with the Internet. Tellingly, you can find sites on the web specifically concerned with this phenomenon, such as American Rhetoric (http://www.americanrhetoric.com), providing a selection of 100 major speeches, or Great Speeches Collection, at http://history places.com. Rhetoric is of course present in the political discourse of members of the executive and of congressmen and senators; rhetoric is heard in the courtroom, and Hollywood has built an entire movie genre on it; rhetoric even runs through the informal, jocular acknowledgements given at showbiz awards ceremonies, and provides the sinew of Jay Lenos and David Lettermans late-show spiels; to particularly striking effect, rhetoric animates church sermons, designed and produced as television spectaculars that have now cornered weekend morning prime time. It was in this culture of the revival of the word that todays President of the United States was born and bred, and this is where he still operates today. His university training refined a number of talents that are no doubt innate. These were qualities that also graced Ronald Reagan, for instance, whose acting career proved a good fallback in the face of communicative and political challenges (the same cannot be said of George W. Bush), such as his famous debate with Walter Mondale broadcast from Kansas City towards the end of the 1984 campaign. But commentators and biographers have unanimously hailed Obama for the further distinction of oratorical fire and literary talent. In 1995, after months of writerly seclusion in Bali, Obama published  an excellent autobiographical account that met with high critical acclaim: Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance.[6] On reading this memoir, one perceives that the author is touched with literary passion and possessed of wide and varied learning, ranging from Shakespeare, Melville and Emerson to Nietzsche and Saint Augustine, from Toni Morrison and Doris Lessing to the great novelist of the Deep South, the Nobel laureate William Faulkner, who merits mention in Obamas vibrant speech delivered at Philadelphia in March 2008, A More Perfect Union. Barack Obamas rhetorical flair is also in evidence in his ability to empathize with his audience by his skillful actio, the austere but forceful gestures with which he delivers his speeches. He displays fine judgment in his choice of speechwriters, and is able to convey to them the guiding ideas-the rhetorical inventio, or core content of the message-to which his writers must then give the right words-elocutio-arranged into the most effective structure, or dispositio, for the intended purpose of the address. Logographers, ghostwriters, negros The history of Greek rhetoric devotes a short paragraph to memorialize the modest but indispensable figure of the logographer: in the fifth century BC exemplars such as Antiphon or Lysias worked as mercenary speechwriters. Their modern counterparts find no shortage of work as members of the teeming campaign outfits put on the road by the typical American presidential candidate, whose frenzied activity and ethical quandaries were taken to the screen by Mike Nichols in the 1998 movie Primary Colors, starring John Travolta and Emma Thompson. Obamas leading logographer is Jon Favreau, a 27-year-old prodigy who devoted two months to write the twenty-minute speech that his boss gave at the Lincoln Memorial at the start of his campaign. In addition to writing the Victory Speech for November 4, 2008, Favreau also penned the words that would have been spoken if Obama had lost. The President and his logographer understand each other so well that Obama calls Favreau a mind-reader, crediting him with almost telepathic empathy. This is the key to being a  good ghostwriter, the English term for what we in Spanish call a negro, a writer on anothers behalf. The outturn of this fruitful partnership is a corpus of oratorical pieces that already deserves a place of honor in the canon of American rhetoric. These fine, poetic speeches are also sharply effective in stirring their hearers to action. Another matter-and this is the vital challenge standing in the way of rhetoric, an art shaped, we ought not to forget, by the Sophists-is whether these beautiful pieces have any performative force, as a linguist might say. Put another way, the tough reality is that a wide gap yawns open between saying and doing; as the Spanish adage goes, obras son amores y no buenas razones, good works, not fine words, are the stuff of love. How to Do Things with Words is the title of a series of papers given at Harvard (and published posthumously in 1962) by John Langshaw Austin, a linguistic philosopher concerned not so much with the descriptive capacity of language as with its ability to affect reality, to shape the facts. Hillary Clinton, in the heat of the primaries, mischievously said, My opponent gives speeches. I offer solutions. Obama risks being stigmatized as a purveyor of hot air in the wake of his winning the Nobel Peace Prize in October 2009. Rather than an accolade warranted by the laureates actions, the prize seems merely to recognize the esthetics of Obamas mentions of peace in his speeches, already acclaimed by some journalists as some of the most brilliant ever spoken by a President of the United States. The American canon of oratory also includes a number of pieces delivered by statesmen who never rose to the highest office. The oratory of Barack Obama is indebted, in my view, to one in particular. I have a dream I am of course referring to the dazzling address that Martin Luther King delivered in Washington on August 28, 1963, at the crowning moment of a march on the federal capital by black civil rights campaigners claiming entitlement to work and freedom. Luther Kings speech went down in the  annals of rhetoric under the title of its core phrase, which, by dexterous use of anaphora, operates as the central motif: I have a dream. Martin Luther King, like Barack Obama 44 years later, first turns his hearers attention to the figure of a great American, President Lincoln, whose Emancipation Proclamation came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves. But that promise of work and freedom-the orator then continues with vibrant diction-has been dishonored by the American nation, and the black community is now to raise its voice in protest, like a man given a bad check. Following this apt simile, so close to the heart of a money-driven society like America, the speaker offers a short but powerful list of demands with which the movement has come to Washington. He uses this moment to identify with his audience, as if he were no more than another participant in the march, and, addressing his brothers and sisters in the second person, he urges them, Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. And, as a proactive expression of his exhortation against discouragement, Martin Luther King then spoke the prophetic phrase that became the title of the entire speech, and that structures the final stretch of the oration by the figure of anaphora, the intermittent repetition of a single idea expressed in the same words: I have a dream. The speakers dream is rooted from the outset in the so-called American dream, the attainment of which is presented as still in the future. It is the dream of seeing realized Thomas Jeffersons proposition in the Declaration of Independence of 1776, that all men are created equal, as applied to the racial discrimination that at this time, 1964, still reigned. The dream is then particularized into a number of direct phrases that build up to a climax of hope propitiated by the repetition of the same form of words by a roused audience. And the first fundamental anaphora, I have a dream, several times repeated, now gives way to a second anaphora that will serve to end the speech. If America is destined to be a great nation, it will see that dream come true and liberty will prevail for all its children. To conclude his speech, the orator applies the figure of anaphora to the refrain of a popular song, written in 1832, titled America: Let freedom ring. This phrase is repeated no fewer than ten times. Martin Luther King then links up this phrase with another, drawn from a well-known black spiritual: Free at last. Almost half a century after I have a dream, the emblematic phrase of the leading figure of the Afro-American community-who tragically died in 1968, long before a black citizen reached the presidency of the United States-Barack Obama, in the speeches that were to raise him to the Oval Office, shared a number of features with Martin Luther King (who incidentally also won the Nobel Peace Prize). In the key speech on the New Hampshire primary night, the man who was to become Americas first black president had heartfelt words of reminiscence for the black preacher who took us to the mountaintop and pointed us the way to the Promised Land. Both orators share a recognition of the legacy of Jefferson, Lincoln and the Founding Fathers; both use the language of the Christian community, gathered round the warmth of the Bible; both are masters of oratory, and successful rhetorical performers in front of their respective audiences. Obama even shares Kings recourse to the figure of anaphora, this time with a phrase which was likewise to achieve outstanding resonance: Yes we can. Yes we can One of the forms taken by the emergence of new communicative technologies now in the service of political discourse is exemplified by the fascinating way in which Obamas slogan was made into a song produced by Will.I.Am (William James Adams), a member of the hip-hop band Black Eyed Peas, who then broadcast his work via YouTube and dipdive.com in February 2008 under the username WeCan08. Obama and his speechwriters were not wholly original in coining the phrase. The direct precedent of the yes we can tagline was Hispanic. In 1972, the Chicano human rights leader Cesar Chavez, who with Dolores Huerta and Philip Vera Cruz founded United Farm Workers, used the slogan Sà ­, se puede, which translates into English as Yes, it can be done. The difference between these two phrasings in English, Chavez and Obamas, has vital rhetorical significance. Yes we can contains a veritable compendium of expressive virtues, from the standpoint of the core idea, or inventio, and in terms of its dispositio and elocutio. More, it is easy to remember, and the speakers actio or performance can readily arouse a collective response, as seen on YouTube: the entire audience put their voices together as a univocal chorus echoing the soloist. The crux, however, is that Chavez slogan was impersonal, whereas Obama transformed it into a form of words unambiguously encompassing the joint will of leader and people, united by that inclusive we. The illocutionary and perlocutionary impact of the slogan can be elucidated by looking back at the tagline used for Dwight Eisenhowers presidential campaign of 1952. A marketing expert, Peter G. Peterson, who later rose to be Richard Nixons Trade Secretary, crafted a phrase which, unlike Obama, Eisenhower for obvious reasons never included in his own speeches, but his followers chanted non-stop; it was touted relentlessly by the whole propagandistic armory of Republican billboards, rosettes, medals, flags, banners, signage and badges. Peterson, the mind behind all this, lighted on General Eisenhowers nickname: Ike. Playing chiefly with the rhetorical figure of alliteration, Peterson tied Ike to the first-person pronoun, I, thus eliciting the speakers full engagement with what he or she was saying. Finally, the third alliterative term, linking the subject-the I instantiating each potential voter-to the object-the candidates nickname, Ike, was a verb with a similar vowel sound: the present indicative of to like. I like Ike became a round declaration by whoever spoke the slogan of his preference in the presidential race. I like Ike: therefore, my vote for the Presidency of the United States goes to Dwight Eisenhower, and no other. Obamas slogan is doubtless more resonant than Eisenhowers, and even more compact. Its three monosyllables make it memorable and give it prosodic, rhythmic and perlocutionary force. In those speeches in which Obama actually spoke the phrase yes we can, his audience would echo the same words, the  meanings of which range over a mass of politically charged domains. The first monosyllable of the tagline has the robustness of the affirmative. The speaker starts with an affirmation, with all that that implies as a positive bid to mobilize. And that yes forthwith engages with an inclusive we, the first-person plural pronoun that embraces both speaker and hearer, unlike Cesar Chavez precedent, yes, it can be done, which, as we have seen, has an impersonal tenor. Finally, the verb can carries power, strength, determination. An audience thus roused by a leader partakes in the meaning of these three monosyllables, which they can readily chant. The import of this is to say, aloud and in unison: We affirm that together we shall achieve our aims, because our combined strength enables us to do so. Rhetorical figures The apostrophe is one of the figures classified in the art of rhetoric as pathetic, in the technical sense that these were devices appropriate to venting the passions. An apostrophe consists in expressly calling upon the audience, in a bid to create the climate for achieving the orators perlocutionary ends. With his yes we can, Obama peremptorily urged his followers to take on and successfully resolve the decisive challenges facing the health of the Republic. Yes we can burst onto the scene of Barack Obamas presidential campaign in the course of his speech at Nashua on January 8, 2008, the night after the New Hampshire Democratic primary, which Obama lost to Hillary Clinton, his main rival. From the standpoint of rhetorical analysis, however, we should look at the full sweep of the future Presidents twelve key speeches, from his candidacy announcement at Springfield on February 10, 2007, to the Victory Speech in Grant Park, Chicago, on November 4, 2008. The first speech to feature Yes we can, the New Hampshire address, was the third of a series that repays consideration as an integrated whole, in so far as, to different degrees and modulated in different ways, it contains the doctrinal message that Obama, as a presidential candidate, sought to convey to the American people. To this end, his speechwriters put in play a vast and powerful arsenal of rhetorical resources. The first text I have chosen ─Obamas announcement that he was to run for President─ is indisputably significant for its inventio, its content, its choice of venue (the Lincoln Memorial, erected on the site where the eponymous former president gave his famous House Divided speech) and its ingenious rhetorical design. Obama draws inspiration from the founders of the Republic to promise what all politicians promise at the start of their campaigns: change. He lists the grave challenges faced by the nation, and deplores the dearth of leadership and the pettiness of politics. In response to these blights and challenges, he ties together a chain of proposals, each starting with the anaphora, Lets be the generation that Lets be the generation that reshapes our economy to compete in the digital age that ends poverty in America that finally tackles our health care crisis that finally frees America from the tyranny of oil. There are no fewer than six uses of this same form of apostrophe, in which the leader stands shoulder to shoulder with his fellow citizens in the will to be the generation of change. One of these anaphoric devices engages another that already points to the main catchphrase with which we are concerned. We can control costs we can harness homegrown, alternative fuels we can work together to track terrorists down, the speaker continues. One can make out the outlines of the rhetorical blueprint of the whole campaign, which was soon to find its ideal slogan in the Yes we can phrase. At Springfield, when Obama was still one of eight Democratic candidates competing for nomination, he affirmed that there is power in words there is power in conviction. The anaphoric repetition of we can is the antidote to skepticism, of which the speaker is not unaware: I know there are those who dont believe we can do all these things. He, however, does believe it, and his faith is reinforced by the certainty that he is not alone. Hence he makes an urgent call to action: That is why this campaign cant only be about me. It must  be about us, it must be about what we can do together. We cannot know whether at that early stage on the long road that was to take Barack Obama to the White House the yes we can phrase was already in his and his speechwriters minds, but what was present was the belief that together, leader and people, they could. Sparks began to fly at the beginning of the following year. The second text with which we are concerned is Obamas speech on Iowa Caucus night, January 3, 2008. Before the party assembly at Des Moines, the candidate started his short but powerful speech with an announcement of imminent change, a change he was ready to lead. His belief is again expressed in a string of four anaphoric paragraphs: Ill be a President who finally makes health care affordable Ill be a President who ends the tax breaks for companies that ship our jobs overseas Ill be a President who [frees] this nation from the tyranny of oil Ill be a President who ends this war in Iraq. The speech concludes with a finely judged rhetorical and emotive gradation. Again using anaphora, the speaker prophesies the moment of change he is confident of achieving with his followers and the American people at large. This was the moment, he says, when America remembered what it means to hope. At this point, Obama and his logographer resort to the rhetorical figure of thought technically termed recriminatio: For many months, weve been teased, even derided for talking about hope, the candidate complains. But, turning the accusation against the original accusers, he reminds us that hope is the bedrock of this nation, an allusion readily grasped by the audience in that it looks to one of the founding myths of the United States. Obama himself embodies the truth of that foundational myth: Hope is what led me here today, with a father from Kenya; a mother from Kansas; and a story that could only happen in the United States of America. The leader uses his own self as a specific model of what he proclaims, enlisting another rhetorical figure already used in that same speech and featuring in several later orations. Hypotyposis or evidentia consists in a detailed description of a specific example that illustrates the speakers argument. Before using  himself as such an example, Obama had evoked several instances of hope for change, which he had read in the eyes of the young woman in Cedar Rapids, whose night shift was not enough to pay health care for her sick sister, or had heard in the voice of the New Hampshire woman whose nephew was fighting in Iraq. This same hope had inspired a handful of colonials to rise up against an empire, and driven the American civil rights movement, led by James Bevel and Martin Lut her King, to march from Selma to Montgomery, in the racist Alabama of the Ku Klux Klan and Governor Wallace. Given these precedents, everything was in place for the candidates third landmark speech, the New Hampshire address at Nashua on January 8, 2008, to bring to light the slogan that was to usher Barack Obama into the White House and become a motto of universal resonance. With admirable rhetorical skill, this speech lays out a range of political arguments-anticipated by earlier speeches-and naturally culminates with the emblematic phrase yes we can, three words which the speaker predicts will ring from coast to coast; from sea to shining sea. Those political propositions herald a change wrought by a new majority that desires to end unaffordable health care, end tax breaks for companies that ship [American] jobs overseas, end schools blighted by corridors of shame, and put a stop to pattern of energy use that harms the planet and humanity. By the figure of speech termed anadiplosis, Obamas oration at Nashua rounds out each of these propositions with a repeated urge that we can, always attributed to the new majority: we can do this with our new majority. His words flow like a cascade until a final apostrophe to the audience arouses the response of a chorus speaking with one voice. Returning to the figure mentioned earlier, recriminatio, the leader places blame on an opposing chorus, the chorus of cynics who insist we cannot do this. Those who deny the possibility of hope in a nation in which hope is never vain: But in the unlikely story that is America, there has never been anything false about hope. A number of domestic evidentias are then  mentioned: the struggle of the Spartanburg textile worker, the plight of the Las Vegas dishwasher, the hopes of the little girl who goes to a crumbling school in Dillon and the dreams of the boy who learns on the streets of LA. On this rugged foundation that befits the nature of the American people, Barack Obama raises his slogan like a standard, and with the choral approval of his audience he recites the phrase no fewer than nine times, before closing the speech with the final words: yes we can. Once the phrase was firmly coined, Obama did not actually utter it even once in his next speech, a long and closely argued address. This was A More Perfect Union, which Obama gave on March 18, 2008, in Philadelphia, the city which for Americans is something like Cadiz is for us [Spains first democratic constitution was proclaimed in 1812 at Cadiz], for Philadelphia was where the Constitution was enacted on September 17, 1787, twenty-five years before Spains La Pepa. The first sentence of its preamble gives Obamas speech its title, and expresses one of the core ideas of his whole campaign ─the union of all Americans─ but, in particular, it opens with an emphatic We, echoing Yes we can: We, the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect union do ordain and establish this Constitution of the United States of America. Obama again gives the lie to the naysayers who dismiss his candidature as a mere exercise in affirmative action, but he devotes the lions share of the address to a harsh recriminatio directed against his former pastor, the Reverend Jeremiah Wright, whose radical invective against the United States, as his reaction to the survival of racial discrimination, had compromised Obamas electoral outlook. The candidate makes use of this sensitive juncture to assert that, for him, too, amicus Plato sed magis amica veritas, [Plato is my friend, but truth is the greater friend]. He publicly professes his religious faith and at the same time evinces an outright rejection of extremism, always confident that America can change, and that only if we do as the Scriptures would have us do ─be brothers to our brothers─  Americans will bring truth to those words of the Constitution as to a more perfect union. To illustrate his argument, nothing could be better than a fresh evidentia: the homely heroism of Ashley Baia, a 23-year-old woman volunteer working for the Obama campaign in Florence, South Carolina. Obama acknowledges having already told this anecdote at an event commemorating Martin Luther King at the Baptist church of Ebenezer, Kings own parish in Atlanta. This display of religious faith-which would be unthinkable in a European politician, for instance-comes to the fore in the next piece I propose to examine: Obamas talk given on Fathers Day, June 15, 2008, at the Apostolic Church of God in Chicago. As though he himself were in holy orders, Obama begins his speech with a quotation from the Sermon on the Mount, as told by St Matthew. He follows this, again, with a mention of Martin Luther King, and then holds himself out as a statesman and father, advocating the education of his children as a responsibility not only of government officials but also of their own parents. He ends the address by characterizing his words as a prayer or call which he hopes will come true for his country in the years ahead. A specific, chiefly economic theme runs through the immediately subsequent speech, delivered by Obama at Kettering University in Flint, Michigan, on June 16. The title tells the story: Renewing American Competitiveness. This was not an occasion for the emotive force of a political harangue, but the candidate nonetheless refers to the Founding Fathers, who, having won independence, created a common market by fusing the economies of the first 13 states. He follows this up with a with a fierce attack on the neoliberal, militaristic and ultraconservative politics of George W. Bush and the Republican Party. In stark opposition to their approach, he proposes as pillars of an economy that is to become more competitive in the globalized world a reinvigorated school system, innovative energy strategies, a more efficient health system and new investment in fundamental research and infrastructure. His closing words, however, point back to the central theme of his campaign: Because when American s come together, there is no destiny too difficult or too distant for us to reach. Ich bin ein Berliner The second-to-last speech that Barack Obama gave in the year in which he won the presidency was also tightly focused on a specific subject, but for that very reason ─and, in particular, because of its venue─ it brings to mind another piece of oratory that has its place among the most memorable ever spoken by a President of the United States in the twentieth century. Obama only revealed his foreign policy blueprint on the occasion of his visit to Berlin, on July 24, 2008. Under the title A World That Stands as One, he sets out his understanding of cultural diversity, national interests, nations and the attitudes of all the worlds peoples. Facing a different audience-not his usual hearers, American electors-he presents himself as a citizen of the United States and fellow citizen of the world. He refers to the responsibility that attaches to global citizenship, and acknowledges that the United States closest ally is still Europe, placing on record his hope that Europe will remain united. In our continent, he says, it is likewise meaningful to invoke that yearning for a more perfect union, in the words of the preamble to the American Constitution, which Obama mentions here in Berlin. In a Berlin riven by the Wall, fraught with the intolerable tension of the Cold War and the partition of Germany, John Fitzgerald Kennedy had roused his German hearers when, on June 11, 1963, he opened his speech, delivered from the steps of the Rathaus Schoneberg, with a seeming paradox, spoken in German: Ich bin ein Berliner (nowhere in the speech was Kennedy to utter the English phrase I am a Berliner). The effect of these words was electrifying: the people of Berlin, besieged and alone in a redoubt of Western democracy behind the Iron Curtain ─an expression popularized by another great modern orator, Winston Churchill─ enthusiastically identified with the president of a power which only 18 years before had driven the Nazi regime to defeat. The audience gladly accepted Kennedys closing argument, in the manner of an epiphonema: All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin. Therefore, as a free man, I proudly say these words: Ich  bin ein Berliner. This belated review of a small selection from the oratorical corpus of Barack Hussein Obama, brilliantly crowned by his Victory Speech of November 4, 2008, in Chicagos Grant Park, reveals, among other rhetorical features like those discussed earlier, a consistent theme, developed over the course of the entire process in response to the emerging circumstances of the campaign and the venues of Obamas rallies, in conjunction with an overarching strategy, which scholars of Baroque literature have often characterized as the coming together of two movements: first, the dissemination of arguments; secondly, a complementary gathering of arguments. This is precisely the characteristic tenor of this final oration, the Victory Speech. The President Elect opens with an affirmation of the continuing force of the dream of our Founders and other great men, such as Lincoln, Roosevelt, and Martin Luther King, a preacher from Atlanta. Those doubting the dream have finally been put right by American votes. To flesh out this concept of electoral vindication, Obamas logographer again resorts to the figure of anaphora, four times repeating the same clause: Its the answer The answer is change, still the true genius of America. The winning candidate, via the figure of apostrophe, then directly addresses his hearers- whether listening to him in Grant Park itself or by the medium of electromagnetic waves-as the you that has made all this possible. This apostrophe does not disclose a recriminatio, like that which even on this joyous occasion Obama has cast in the direction of the cynics, but a veritable encomium or panegyric of those who have raised him to office, with their donations, their supportive looks and applause, and their votes, which are decisive for Obama to take on challenges as vast as two wars, a planet in peril, the worst financial crisis in a century. To personify the unanimous people as an individual, he proposes a new evidentia, Ann Nixon Cooper, who that afternoon had stood in line to vote, 106 years of life behind her. The cold shower of reality nonetheless encourages Obama to rebuild the strong  bonds of alliance between President and people invoked by yes we can, the slogan which now, looking forward, takes on the shape of a rhetorical variatio: I promise you, we as a people will get there. YouTube provides a record of how Obamas promise was met by the audiences chorus of yes we can. This was precisely the closing phrase of the entire campaign, at the very moment at which the candidate was invested with the charisma of victory. His speech was again a masterpiece of that effective communicative technology that is none other than ancient rhetoric, as revived in the Internet Galaxy. Today, Obamas speechwriters continue to exploit all the resources of the art of rhetoric, including the play on words that contrasts the interests of Wall Street-the inner sanctuary of capitalism-with those of Main Street, which stands for American towns and small cities, the emblem of the common citizenry.

World Systems Theory: Analysis

World Systems Theory: Analysis The World Systems theory was the brain child of Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974. It saw the division of the world into three parts; the core, the semi-peripehry and the periphery. The core meaning those countries which were economically developed such as countries of the Western Europe, the United States of America and Japan. The semi-periphery was in between and was most of the countries in Asia. The peripheral countries on the other hand were those who were resource rich and highly under developed like the countries of Latin America and Africa. The world systems theory is a more of a Marxian approach of understanding under development especially in Latin America. It is a materialist theory as it sees the political and cultural, socio and religious aspects of a country all determined by the economy and it is a systems analysis because all of this is seen as one organisation. The world systems theory is a critique of capitalism and finds it precursors in the Annales school as well as the dependency theories. The period after World War II marked the age of decolonization in the world. Many former colonies were now independent nations, but, they were still under developed. The strategy offered to them to overcome this underdevelopment was to follow a path of modernization akin to the western model. Development theorist like Rostow advocated his five stages of growth. These were all compulsory stages by which a country has to pass through to become a developed nation starting from the first stage which is that of being a poor nation. So Western Modernization replaced Western Colonialism. But then scholars like the promoters of the dependency theory shunned this approach saying in fact Western modernisation embedded in capitalism was detrimental to the state. We shall now follow the paper through a brief note on capitalism. This will be followed by a glimpse into the precursors of the world systems theory such as the dependency theory. A look on what the world systems analysis is and how it affects governance and finally we shall look at the critiques of the world system analysis. Capitalism Capitalism as understood by most is the maximisation of profit. Capitalism according to thinkers like Weber was successful because of a spirit it embodied this spirit according to Weber was in the Calvinist and Protestant ethic. Weber went further to say that it was in fact a Judaic ethic. This was supported by Sombart who became a sympathizer of the Nazis and like Ford were anti-Semitic. They were of the opinion that international finance was controlled by men of a single and peculiar race. Wallerstein himself says that there are certain epochs of capitalism and divided his analysis of the determining elements of the modern world into four such epochs; the formation of the European world economy from 1450 to 1650; the consolidation of this system from 1640 to 1815; the technological transformation which was the industrial revolution between 1815 to 1917 and the consolidation of this capitalist world economy from 1917 onwards. However in the period of the 1890s to the 1920s a French speaking-critique of work of Sombart and Weber emerged. This was the school of Henri Pirenne. Pirenne developed a materialist theory of social and economic causation. He claims that the Viking raids were a consequence of the displacement of the Mediterranean trade routes to the north by the Muslim conquests. Thus in saying so he challenges Weber and Sombarts claim that capitalism is a spirit and a mentality but in the revival of towns and trade routes in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Annales school of thought followed in Pirennes footsteps to develop a materialist bottom-up approach to understand economic and social history. While Weber and Sombart saw capitalism in its industries Pirenne saw its roots since the medieval times though the two parties both agreed on the fact that capitalisms main object was profit. This accumulation of profit as the main objective of capitalism proved to be very detrimental to the former colonies, called the Third World. The third world was characterised by huge labour resources, poverty, huge deposits of natural resources and raw materials as well as food grains. Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Columbia were in the 1950s predicted to become major players on the world economic stage. They all possessed sufficient internal markets to propel growth; a formidable industrial base; abundant reserves of raw materials; powerful stimuli to grow nationally and; satisfactory formations of domestic capital.1 Yet in the end these five countries became trapped in a dependent state on the developed nations. During the days when colonial countries had paramount power the view of development effectuated by Europeans was to exploit and draw profit from the resources of the non European world. This view supposes then that development of the European colonies was not to happen. However, out of the moral and political duty that seemed to bear upon the colonists to develop their resource bases as it represented a material and moral good for the world. There was therefore no harm in exploiting the resources of the colonies as it seemed that the white mans burden to develop these civilizations was an adequate transaction between the two parties. Post 1945 there was a decolonizing process in the world. Countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America were freeing themselves off the colonial yoke. There was a surge of anti-colonial sentiments and assertiveness in these old colonies. Development at this juncture began to be defined by the belief that there was no need for a colonial master to develop them. There was an assertion that the colonies left to themselves could develop by their own endeavours. There was thus in India a call for Swadeshi and the call for the rise of indigenous industries and the growth of indigenous capital. However the assumption was faulty in the line that modernity and development was in actuality defined by the adoption of strategies of the global North and the technology of the North. Latin authors called this new ideology as developmentalism. The Soviet Union called it socialism and the United States called it economic development. This ideology of developmentalism was favoured by many countries of the North and they offered aid to the countries to help them out in their objective. The Economic Commission for Latin America (CEPAL) developed a new language of core-periphery relations used primarily to justify program import-substitution industrialization. The more radical Latin American scholars called this dependency which needed to be fought against so that the dependent countries could develop. Then in the 1970s the oil turmoil in the world took place. The villain it was said was developmentalism. Import-substitution industrialization was perceived as corrupt protectionism. State building was deconstructed as feeding a bloated bureaucracy. Financial aid was seen as money wasted. It was decided that loans to states in distress, to be beneficial, needed to be hed ged by requirements that these states cut out wasteful state expenditures on items like schools and health. State institutions were proclaimed as inefficient and should be privatized so as to be responsive to the market and therefore reach maximum efficiency. The Dependency school which saw capitalism as a system of exchanges. The dependency school of thought see the poverty of the South as a result of low prices for the exports of primary products to the North and as a result of the deteriorating terms of trade the countries of the South failed to industrialise and remain as raw material and food suppliers to the North. For example Argentina in the 1900s was considered to be a very important country and its rise was very anticipated. However, due to lopsided terms of trade and unequal exchange relations with other industrialised economies countries of the global South had become according to Andre Gunder Frank underdeveloped. Unlike Rostows model of development which starts by showing that all the countries are in the beginning poor and then shift through different trajectories of development to become developed countries Frank said that it was only in the exchanges with the north that the economies had lost their balance internally and hence failed to accumulate capital domestically and industrialise on their own. In his essay on the sociology of development and underdevelopment Frank critised the assumption that by following stages of growth poor countries could become developed by replicating the path of the developed nations. This path was marked by the ability to exploit other lesser developed countries. A global structure emerges in which a metropolis or the core imposes itself on satellites in the south through colonialism. They could force the satellite countries to produce cash crops or raw material for the core which was essential for their industries which they resold to the countries of the south. The World System Theory The world systems theory speaks of a polarised world and a polarising world at the economic reality. Wallerstein argues that the people of the South saw that there were people better off than them and they aspired towards this. The North saw this as a tinderbox and wanted to quell the threat by putting in intellectual discussions about development and globalisation that were respectable but in retrospect misguided. They wanted that the rest of the world aspire to reach qualities of life present in countries like Denmark. But at the same time there could be alternatives to this. The gap between the core of history has grown wider not smaller as is evidenced in society, even if some countries have improved their standing in the distribution of wealth. The World Systems theory departs from all here in the notion that capitalism develops as a comprehensive structural constraint at the international level. It combines a core where the social transformations have taken place, with a periphery that is equally a part of the capitalist system. The division of labour was the systemic constraint according to Wallerstein which is bounded in a specific way, internally structured, regulated, centralises and subject to functional mechanisms such as self sustenance trough specialisation. This strategy was firstly one that wanted a political empire where lands were connected into the long distance trading system. The second strategy was of functional specialisation in which each state seeks to adapt its actions to the functional requirements of its place in the system. The strategy of functional specialisation included minimising overhead costs by abandoning territorial imperial ambitions and fiscal policies and to adopt instead mercantilist or protective policies. This resulted in accumulation of capital at the core and consistently reinforces the position of the state in the division of labour. The periphery which also has specialised functions even though they are the production of raw material and food grains however unlike in the core the labour relation is mostly of a bonded nature. The semi periphery assumes the tasks of both the core and the periphery. The basic strength of capitalism has been two fold (Wallerstein,1984); on the one hand it has been able to accumulate capital at all costs and on the other it has put into place political structures to guarantee this accumulation of capital. It happens that workers demand for higher renummeration and the factory gives in because it goes into paying this additional money would not affect it too much. However, when the same workers press for more renummeration the factory relocates or is a runaway factory. The existence of a large pool of rural labour for whom urban waged employment at whatever level of renumeration. So as Wallerstein argues that as wage rates goes up in one part of the world it is followed by another section in the world willing to work at a much lower wage. However, this new urban wage labourer historically then becomes less urbanely disoriented and asks for more benefits, here again the factory shifts to another zone. Wallerstein then argues that there has been a de crease in the number of zones to which the factory can flee to and this is called deruralization of the world. The costs of input is dependent on the percentage what the owner wants to pay as inputs and he does so by avoiding all these input costs and shifting it to others. This is called the externalization of costs. The three principles of externalisation are detoxification, renewal of primary resources and infrastructure. Detoxification is easily understood by taking the example of dumping sites. Garbage is dumped in a new site and the costs of this dumping activity is slow to show itself. E-Waste dumping in China may be taken as an example where the electronic waste from all over the globe is collected and dumped in China. However, sites to dump all this new waste is running out. To remedy this, projects are taken up either by the governments or individuals to clean up the mess. Now there is more knowledge as well about the cost and damages that this dumping is causing on the environment. Who then pays for this cleaning up? One argument is that you internalise the cost and you make the pr oducer of the waste pay for it. The other example is of the carbon market where developed countries are buying the carbon credits of developing and underdeveloped nations so that their industries are free to emit polluting articles into the environment. Atul Kohli says that industrialisation is a major component of development of a country; even then it is not the only factor. He says that industrialization involves a procedure of societal change. Industrialization is therefore possible in a situation of political stability, the availability of experienced entrepreneurs and of a capable urban work force.2 This was found in countries like England and hence capitalism was easier to come out there. Berand argues that trade has developed by leaps and bounds because of better transport and communication facilities. The post-war GATT brought about the end of protectionism, economic warfare and hostility. There was also a spurt of new companies which were multinational in character and had easy capital flows in different countries. Like Wallerstein argued, there was a lack of new spaces for the core countries from whence to get resources from. Berend adds that the new division of labour has led to many of the core countries to transport their raw material extraction activities to the peripheral countries. These activities which are labour intensive and highly polluting are shifted to peripheral countries for the cheaper labour cost and less restrictive environmental regulations. As a consequence of the shift there was a huge amount of deindustrialisation in the advanced countries. However the industries that shifted to the South were those which were not highly advanced and more la bour intensive, the more important sectors like research and development and fine chemical industries. There is persistent exploitation in the periphery by the core and the semi periphery. Therefore, according to Wallerstein the state managers should not blindly continue to increase production in the sectors that define them as part of the periphery. Wallerstein argues that peripheral states should not try to produce any more raw materials but should try to emancipate themselves from their structural peripheral positions by changing their productive contribution to the division of labour. There is an understanding that the concept of state and society exist in the same juridical diameter. According to Wallerstein these two organisations are operated by the same individuals. Thus this fits into the idea of the nation which refers to a society that has a state to itself, or has the moral right to have a state to itself; the right to self determination. Wallerstein says that in saying this there is a difficulty of defining the boundaries of a nation. Therefore he uses the measure of interdependent productive activities, or the effective social division of labour, or an economy. He says that in modern history the dominant effective boundaries of the capitalist world economy has expanded from its stand in the sixteenth century to encompass the entire world. This new world economy is constituted by cross-cutting network of productive processes so that there are a number of backward or forward linkages on which these processes are dependent on. There is also state pressure that affects the labourer. It governs the relationship as Wallerstein says between the bourgeois and the proletariat. Then it governs the relationship among the bourgeois. Wallerstein says that the states are constantly changing in form, strength and boundaries through the interplay of the interstate system. The commodity chains also become longer and more intertwined in the machinery and therefore there has been a constant pressure by the strong against the weak. The pressure has become more concentrated in the chains that are the easiest to monopolize in a few areas core processes in core areas and more and more of the processes that require less skilled and more extensive manpower that is easiest to keep at a low income level in other areas peripheral areas. Wallerstein says that parallel to the economic polarization there is also the political polarization between the stronger states in the core areas and weaker states in peripheral areas. A strong state is not one that is authoritarian but one which can maximize the conditions for profit making by its enterprises within the world economy. This may mean the creation of quasi monopoly situations or restraining others from doing the same to its disadvantage. The strength of a stronger state according to Wallerstein is measured by its ability to minimize all quasi monopolies or to enforce the doctrine of free trade. There are also the states that sit in between the core and the periphery called semiperipheral states. They are usually attached to a core state for benefits. These states at times of difficulty of capital accumulation take advantage of the situation and become freer of the control of the core states. They are freer to play among their rivals and create new quasi monopolistic constraints. However if they are too weak they return back to the imperialistic fold. Wallerstein says that in an interstate system, state are actors, but, at the same time they are organisations. The world economy, as different from international economy is a complex of language, religion, ideologies. There exists a Weltanschauung of imperium. The major social institutions of the capitalist world economy the states, the classes the peoples are all shaped by the ongoing workings of the world economy. World Systems Theory and Governance According to some interpretations of Wallerstein works, he is more in favour of looking at the macro. He says that the world is more than just a limited to a certain space therefore it is the entire processes in the globe which brings about this relationship between the core and the peripheral areas. According to the dependency theorist it is not so much the state that is now responsible for the shifts in the international affairs but it is the dynamic of economic forces. The achievement of the modern world in technology has made it possible for the flow of surplus from the lower to the upper strata; from periphery to the core by eliminating the political superstructure. The world systems theory sees the correlation between the economic position occupied by owners- producers in the world market economy and the state. The state strengths is determined by five independent measures of political strength. These include the extent to which state policy can compete in the world market economy (mercantilism); the extent to which states can affect the capacity of other states to compete (in military power); the ability of states to mobilize resources to perform these competitive and military tasks at the cost that they do not eat into the profits of their owner-producers; the capacity of states to create administration that permits the swift carrying out of tactical decisions (or an effective bureaucracy); and the degree to which the political rules reflect a balance of interest among owners-producers such that a working hegemonic bloc forms the stable underpinnings of such a state. 3Wallerstein believes that the decline in the state power has actually incre ased the freedom of action of capitalistic enterprises which have now become multinational corporations(MNCs). Wallerstein minimises the role of the state according to Tony Smith, to such an extent that he says that there are no socialist systems nor are there feudal systems because there is only one world system. The state no longer fights the socio-economic battles but it is the classes. These five factors are the political and economic factors of state strength and reciprocally linked because economic efficiency adds to the strength of the state. In the core states where there is more economic efficiency states have less need to intervene in the world market economy. To Wallerstien the state is most active in states with moderate strength. Thus from this argument it follows that in the core the presence of a centralized and powerful state institutional political structure is thus an indication of weakness rather than strength. This is so because the presence of a strong bourgeois ie class would agree to the collective arrangements that require a strong king to impose. In the semi-periphery the weakness of the owner-producers requires direct state involvement in the extraction of surplus strong state institutions as an indication of strength. Those state in the periphery were seen as the weakest as they have very weak institutional power structures. Wallerstein also uses the dominant class structures to explain the movement of states within the capitalist world economy residing outside the core. He takes for example the case of Sweden and Prussia. He says that the institutional political structures present in the states enabled the states to extract economic surplus. In the case of Sweden the autonomy of its peasantry and corresponding weakness of the its landowning aristocracy4 made it possible. While in Prussia the ability to use military force under the inspiration and support of the Junker class which helped it to gather this surplus through wars and territorial expansion. The state too will intervene only up to the point of its effectiveness in consolidating its power in the face of dominant class relation. Therefore state intervention presupposes a specific societal actor in the core and the periphery; the actor in the core is the dominant classs hegemonic bloc and in the semi-periphery is the centralized state. What has e merged in Kohlis argument is the neo-patrimonial state with the inability to distinguish between the public and the private sphere and the administration using its power and influence to gather benefits for its own self aggrandisement. The neopatrimonial state is a state wherein the centralised and cohesive nature actually do not lead to its industrialisation. The neo-patrimonial state which is weak in domestic capital invites other stronger capitalist groups to fill in the vacuum, to take up economic activities directly. Nigeria for example offered its oil in exchange for a ready source of income on demand. However, these commodity booms do not last very long because the political incapacity of the neo-patrimonial state. In Kohlis argument a developmental state has an almost defined public and private sphere. They are opposite to neo-patrimonial states and are characterized by cohesive politics, that is by centralized and goal oriented authority that penetrate deep into society. To reach these goals the developmental state attaches itself closely to a more developed state or group and in this political arrangement there is a tight control over labour. South Korea under Park Chung Hee and Brazil under Estado Novo are examples of such state, though they resemble fascists states of interwar Europe and Japan. Then there are states which attempt to pursue several goals simultaneously. Industrialisation, agriculture, redistribution welfare is at times politicised either because of intraelite conflicts or because state authority does not penetrate deep enough in society to touch and control the lower class. India and Brazil in several periods exemplify this type of state. Wallerstein says that the relation between state strength and autonomy is very close as determined by the strength of its dominant class and the role played by its owner-producers in the capitalist economy division of labour. While the British state was less autonomous than the absolute monarchy of France its mercantilist class of Britain, the element of strength made the British mercantilist to take on a tailor made rather than a readymade character. Within this core the dominant class force limits the autonomy of the state and the state strength. Outside the core there is a highly centralized state to provide extra market assistance to increase efficiency. State autonomy is neither presupposed or seen as something that explains state action. As Poulantzas5 presupposes the existence of relative state autonomy and invokes it as a functional explanation of how capitalist social formations come to be in close contact. Wallerstein on the other hand, treats relative state autonomy as som ething that varies with the sources of a states power that are related to the structure of its dominant class and integration into the capitalist economy. State autonomy is related to state strengths in different contexts according to particular world contexts and can be functional or dysfunctional. It serves as a descriptive concept whose content varies across conjunctures. Conclusion Wallersteins theory is at times historically inconsistent. As Tony Smith, however says that Wallerstein is wrong in his discussion of state power. As Theda Skocpol points out, the strong states in the sixteenth century were not at the core; in England and Holland but on the periphery; in Spain and Sweden. Alexander Gerschenkron according to Smith6 has demonstrated that the late industrialisers were successful because of exceptionally strong state structures that were determined to modernise. The peripheral countries like Russia, Japan and Germany could not have developed without the vigorous leadership of the state. The major flaw of Wallersteins Volume I treatment of state formation and structures, according to Skocpol and Brenner are drawn from his insistence that productive hierarchies facilitates the operation of unequal exchange enforced on weak states by the stronger states. However the counter argument is that countries like England and Holland which had the strongest economie s failed to develop absolute states like Sweden or Prussia which were in the periphery and the semi periphery. The world systems theory has often been criticised for its overarching focus on economics. Economic growth is important to the development of the state, but it is not the only underlying factor o development for a country. There are other such measures like sociopolitical development, redistribution of resources and other things. References Berend, Ivan T Globalization and its Impact on Core Periphery Relations, UCLA Center for European and Eurasian Studies Conference Papers, Paper 1, Los Angeles, 2004 Garst, Daniel Wallerstein and His Critics in Theory and Society, Vol 14, No. 4, July 1985 Kohli, A State Directed Development : Politics, Power and Industrialisation in the Global Periphery, Cambridge , CUP, 2004 pp 1 -26 New Dictionary of the History of Ideas Smith, Tony The Underdevelopment of Development Literature: The Case of the Dependency Theory; World Politics, Vol. 31, No. 2. (Jan., 1979), pp. 247-288. Stable URL : http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0043871%28197901%2931%3A2%3C247%3ATUODLT%3E 2.0.CO%3B2-I Wallerstein, Immanuel -The Politics of the World Economy, The States, the Movements and Civilizations; Cambridge, CUP, 1984